Arget tissue at a cytotoxic dose. The high, receptor-mediated uptake of particles in the lung endothelium demonstrates the ability of La0.5Gd0.5(225Ac)PO4@GdPO4@Au NPs to deliver 225Ac to a tissue target that is present in the vascular space. Second, the TAT must be able to retain the daughter products of the generator in the target tissue. Migration of daughter products to non-target tissue will severely limit the administered therapeutic dose. Retention of the decay daughters can be achieved in a number of ways. First, the radionuclide may be selected so that the daughter half-lives are sufficiently short that they will not have time to migrate throughout the body. Alternatively, the radionuclide can be chosen so that the daughter products exhibit similar in vivo behavior and remain in the target tissue. This is the principle behind the recent successes using 223 RaCl2 for treatment of bone metastases [34]. The 223Ra daughter products either have short half-lives or have a high affinity for bone (211Pb, t1/2 = 36 m). While effective in this case, translation of this in vivo a generator to other tumor types would require a different mechanism of retaining the 211Pb and 211Bi daughters in the target tissue. A third ML 281 solution to the daughter retention problem involves internalization of the parent radionuclide in the target cell itself [12]. This approach utilizes the internal milieu of the cell to contain the daughter decay products. Tumor targets for internalization occur largely in the extravascular space,Figure 5. MAb 201b antibody conjugation to multi-layered NPs. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054531.gGold Coated LnPO4 DprE1-IN-2 cost Nanoparticles for a RadiotherapyFigure 6. Biodistribution of NPs following tail vein injection in mice at 1 hour (n = 3). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054531.gwhich is difficult to access with larger constructs that promote endocytosis. Attempts to reduce 213Bi toxicity through targeted, metal-chelate based internalizing antibodies have shown only moderate success [35]. The NP construct described in this work improves 225Ac daughter retention relative to both chelate approaches and previous NP constructs. La0.5Gd0.5(225Ac)PO4@GdPO4@Au NPs contain 88 of the 221Fr daughter in vitro, compared with 50 retention observed with La(225Ac)PO4 NPs [28]. Additionally, the in vivo a-generator delivery agent has a negligible effect on the energies of the emitted a particles. A 6 MeV a-particle loses less than 0.2 of its energy in the layered NP whereas the range of the 100 keV recoiling daughters is ,20 nm in bulk LnPO4. Moreover, a portion of the kinetic energy of the daughter particle may be transferred to the entire particle. If a portion of the recoil energy is distributed throughout the highly structured crystalline lattice, the recoiling range of the daughter radionuclides will be significantly decreased [36]. In vivo, the increase of retention of 213Bi in the target tissue over time results from a combination of the ability of the layered NPs to retain the daughter products and endocytosis of the TAT NP. In this work, 213Bi daughter retention in vivo with the layered NP showed improvement over the LaPO4 core NP [28]. The 213Bi retention is lower than the 221Fr retention because prior decays of 225 Ac, 221Fr, and 217At can move the remaining a-emitting nuclides towards the surface of the NP. From this position nearer the surface, subsequent a decays are likely to release the daughter nuclide from the NP. The amount of 213Bi w.Arget tissue at a cytotoxic dose. The high, receptor-mediated uptake of particles in the lung endothelium demonstrates the ability of La0.5Gd0.5(225Ac)PO4@GdPO4@Au NPs to deliver 225Ac to a tissue target that is present in the vascular space. Second, the TAT must be able to retain the daughter products of the generator in the target tissue. Migration of daughter products to non-target tissue will severely limit the administered therapeutic dose. Retention of the decay daughters can be achieved in a number of ways. First, the radionuclide may be selected so that the daughter half-lives are sufficiently short that they will not have time to migrate throughout the body. Alternatively, the radionuclide can be chosen so that the daughter products exhibit similar in vivo behavior and remain in the target tissue. This is the principle behind the recent successes using 223 RaCl2 for treatment of bone metastases [34]. The 223Ra daughter products either have short half-lives or have a high affinity for bone (211Pb, t1/2 = 36 m). While effective in this case, translation of this in vivo a generator to other tumor types would require a different mechanism of retaining the 211Pb and 211Bi daughters in the target tissue. A third solution to the daughter retention problem involves internalization of the parent radionuclide in the target cell itself [12]. This approach utilizes the internal milieu of the cell to contain the daughter decay products. Tumor targets for internalization occur largely in the extravascular space,Figure 5. MAb 201b antibody conjugation to multi-layered NPs. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054531.gGold Coated LnPO4 Nanoparticles for a RadiotherapyFigure 6. Biodistribution of NPs following tail vein injection in mice at 1 hour (n = 3). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054531.gwhich is difficult to access with larger constructs that promote endocytosis. Attempts to reduce 213Bi toxicity through targeted, metal-chelate based internalizing antibodies have shown only moderate success [35]. The NP construct described in this work improves 225Ac daughter retention relative to both chelate approaches and previous NP constructs. La0.5Gd0.5(225Ac)PO4@GdPO4@Au NPs contain 88 of the 221Fr daughter in vitro, compared with 50 retention observed with La(225Ac)PO4 NPs [28]. Additionally, the in vivo a-generator delivery agent has a negligible effect on the energies of the emitted a particles. A 6 MeV a-particle loses less than 0.2 of its energy in the layered NP whereas the range of the 100 keV recoiling daughters is ,20 nm in bulk LnPO4. Moreover, a portion of the kinetic energy of the daughter particle may be transferred to the entire particle. If a portion of the recoil energy is distributed throughout the highly structured crystalline lattice, the recoiling range of the daughter radionuclides will be significantly decreased [36]. In vivo, the increase of retention of 213Bi in the target tissue over time results from a combination of the ability of the layered NPs to retain the daughter products and endocytosis of the TAT NP. In this work, 213Bi daughter retention in vivo with the layered NP showed improvement over the LaPO4 core NP [28]. The 213Bi retention is lower than the 221Fr retention because prior decays of 225 Ac, 221Fr, and 217At can move the remaining a-emitting nuclides towards the surface of the NP. From this position nearer the surface, subsequent a decays are likely to release the daughter nuclide from the NP. The amount of 213Bi w.
