Itory avoidance test, we evaluated whether Fmr1 null mutant zebrafish exhibited learning and memory impairments. Consistent with the notion that FMRP is involved in certain types of learning and memory, we found a significant impairment in the inhibitory avoidance (IA) task in fmr1 KO fishes. These results suggested that the absence of FMRP might disrupt the detection abilities of and/or the response of the brain’s fear system. After the retention test in the IA task, theanimals were subjected to an open-field test; activity in the openfield is often used as a measure of exploration in zebrafish. The distance traveled and the mean speed in the open-field task was significantly higher in fmr1 KO fishes. Our behavioral analyses of the fmr1 KO fish in the light/dark and open-field tests supports previously reported results [13,14,39], suggesting that the absence FMRP expression leads to hyperactivity or increased exploratory behavior. According to neuroanatomical and behavioral analyses, the telencephalic pallium is a key component of the fear circuitry of teleost fish. For example, goldfish with lesions to the telencephalon have impaired avoidance conditioning [42,43]. In a previous study, we reported that the physiological function of the telencephalon is involved in the process of fear memory formation in inhibitory avoidance tasks in zebrafish [34]. Furthermore, electrophysiological evidence has demonstrated that the intratelencephalic connections between the lateral and medial pallium, and the Dl-Dm synapse, play important roles in the synaptic plasticity of the zebrafish [36]. Because our behavioral results suggested that the lack of FMRP caused inhibitory avoidance learning deficits, we hypothesized that FMRP may play an important functional role in telencephalic synaptic plasticity. LTP is an enduring enhancement of synaptic efficacy that has been reported as a cellular model for learning, memory and neuronal plasticity in mammals [44,45,46,47] and zebrafish [36,48]. Recently, abnormal LTP of excitatory transmission has been found in the hippocampus [49], cortex [50,51], and amygdala [19] of fmr1 KO mice. In the present study, we found that the lack of FMRP results in a reduction in LTP at the Dl-DmBehavior Synapse Features in Fragile X SyndromeFigure 7. LTD was 1317923 significantly enhanced in fmr1 KO zebrafish. (A) LTD was induced by a 20 minute LFS (1 Hz) protocol. Insets are representative, superimposed, single sweeps before and after LTD induction in wild-type (n = 4) and fmr1 KO (n = 6) zebrafish. (B) Summary of the averaged magnitudes of LTD. Bars correspond to the percentages of baseline PS amplitude during the last 10 min. *p,0.05 compared with wild-type. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.SC-66 site 0051456.gsynapse, but absence of FMRP did not affect basal transmission function. These findings are in line with previous studies that have described reductions in hippocampal LTP of fmr1 KO mice [52]; these studies suggest that the absence of FMRP may contribute to reduced hippocampal LTP in fmr1 KO mice via reduction of NMDAR-mediated currents [53]. In addition, FMRP is Bexagliflozin chemical information required for NMDA receptor-dependent LTP in the mouse prefrontal cortex [19]. Our previous work showed that telencephalic LTP at Dl-Dm synapses is NMDAR-dependent [36]. Therefore, we suggest that the reduction of LTP in the present study may be mediated through an NMDAR-dependent pathway. In contrast to LTP, long-term depression (LTD) is a long-lasting weakening of synaptic strength.Itory avoidance test, we evaluated whether Fmr1 null mutant zebrafish exhibited learning and memory impairments. Consistent with the notion that FMRP is involved in certain types of learning and memory, we found a significant impairment in the inhibitory avoidance (IA) task in fmr1 KO fishes. These results suggested that the absence of FMRP might disrupt the detection abilities of and/or the response of the brain’s fear system. After the retention test in the IA task, theanimals were subjected to an open-field test; activity in the openfield is often used as a measure of exploration in zebrafish. The distance traveled and the mean speed in the open-field task was significantly higher in fmr1 KO fishes. Our behavioral analyses of the fmr1 KO fish in the light/dark and open-field tests supports previously reported results [13,14,39], suggesting that the absence FMRP expression leads to hyperactivity or increased exploratory behavior. According to neuroanatomical and behavioral analyses, the telencephalic pallium is a key component of the fear circuitry of teleost fish. For example, goldfish with lesions to the telencephalon have impaired avoidance conditioning [42,43]. In a previous study, we reported that the physiological function of the telencephalon is involved in the process of fear memory formation in inhibitory avoidance tasks in zebrafish [34]. Furthermore, electrophysiological evidence has demonstrated that the intratelencephalic connections between the lateral and medial pallium, and the Dl-Dm synapse, play important roles in the synaptic plasticity of the zebrafish [36]. Because our behavioral results suggested that the lack of FMRP caused inhibitory avoidance learning deficits, we hypothesized that FMRP may play an important functional role in telencephalic synaptic plasticity. LTP is an enduring enhancement of synaptic efficacy that has been reported as a cellular model for learning, memory and neuronal plasticity in mammals [44,45,46,47] and zebrafish [36,48]. Recently, abnormal LTP of excitatory transmission has been found in the hippocampus [49], cortex [50,51], and amygdala [19] of fmr1 KO mice. In the present study, we found that the lack of FMRP results in a reduction in LTP at the Dl-DmBehavior Synapse Features in Fragile X SyndromeFigure 7. LTD was 1317923 significantly enhanced in fmr1 KO zebrafish. (A) LTD was induced by a 20 minute LFS (1 Hz) protocol. Insets are representative, superimposed, single sweeps before and after LTD induction in wild-type (n = 4) and fmr1 KO (n = 6) zebrafish. (B) Summary of the averaged magnitudes of LTD. Bars correspond to the percentages of baseline PS amplitude during the last 10 min. *p,0.05 compared with wild-type. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051456.gsynapse, but absence of FMRP did not affect basal transmission function. These findings are in line with previous studies that have described reductions in hippocampal LTP of fmr1 KO mice [52]; these studies suggest that the absence of FMRP may contribute to reduced hippocampal LTP in fmr1 KO mice via reduction of NMDAR-mediated currents [53]. In addition, FMRP is required for NMDA receptor-dependent LTP in the mouse prefrontal cortex [19]. Our previous work showed that telencephalic LTP at Dl-Dm synapses is NMDAR-dependent [36]. Therefore, we suggest that the reduction of LTP in the present study may be mediated through an NMDAR-dependent pathway. In contrast to LTP, long-term depression (LTD) is a long-lasting weakening of synaptic strength.
